The Lenten Season is officially upon us, embodied by a spirit of reflection and repentance culminating in the Celebration of Easter on April 16th. As there is an undeniable influence of Christian theology on the history of art, every Sunday of Lent we will explore art with distinctly Christian themes in a methodology known as visual theology. Today marks the beginning of Holy week with Palm Sunday. In honor of this period of reflection nearing its conclusion, this week will simply be dedicated to the recurring themes of Holy week found within Christian imagery: the Last Supper, the Passion, Pietàs and of course the Crucifixion. Each theme will be accompanied with biblical scripture and some images with brief artistic commentary to provide further context for greater appreciation and/or deeper reflection. The Last Supper "When it was evening, he took his place with the twelve; and while they were eating, he said, “Truly I tell you, one of you will betray me.” And they became greatly distressed and began to say to him one after another, “Surely not I, Lord?” He answered, “The one who has dipped his hand into the bowl with me will betray me. The Son of Man goes as it is written of him, but woe to that one by whom the Son of Man is betrayed! It would have been better for that one not to have been born.” Judas, who betrayed him, said, “Surely not I, Rabbi?” He replied, “You have said so.” While they were eating, Jesus took a loaf of bread, and after blessing it he broke it, gave it to the disciples, and said, “Take it, eat; this is my body.” Then he took a cup, and after giving thanks he gave it to them, saying, “Drink from it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you, I will never again drink of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom.” -MATTHEW 26: 20-29 Garden of Gethsemane "Then he withdrew from them about a stone’s throw, knelt down, and prayed, “Father, if you are willing, remove this cup from me; yet, not my will but yours be done.” Then an angel from heaven appeared to him and gave him strength. In his anguish he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat became like great drops of blood falling down on the ground." -LUKE 22:41-44 "Although Christ had to suffer this alone, without the Father, His love seems evident by the strong light shining down through the darkness of the night. Almost unable to bear the burden of mankind’s salvation, he takes rest and comfort in a greatly needed supporter. Although Christ bares expressions of sheer exhaustion and pain, he appears loving, selfless and accomplished. His comforter is empathetic and patient. Engulfed in the arms of the visitor, Christ slowly gains the strength to face his betrayer and the final excruciating act of his ultimate sacrifice." - Artist Carl Bloch Ecce Homo "Then Pilate took Jesus and had him flogged. The soldiers twisted together a crown of thorns and put it on his head. They clothed him in a purple robe and went up to him again and again, saying, “Hail, king of the Jews!” And they slapped him in the face. Once more Pilate came out and said to the Jews gathered there, “Look, I am bringing him out to you to let you know that I find no basis for a charge against him.” When Jesus came out wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe, Pilate said to them, “Here is the man!” -John 19:1-6 " Whether or not we regard Jesus as a deity, he was at the very least a political leader of an oppressed people. The sculpture alludes to the recent historical past and its sad record of religious and racial intolerance." -Sculptor Mark Wallinger Crucifixion "Later, knowing that everything had now been finished, and so that Scripture would be fulfilled, Jesus said, 'I am thirsty.' A jar of wine vinegar was there, so they soaked a sponge in it, put the sponge on a stalk of the hyssop plant, and lifted it to Jesus’ lips. When he had received the drink, Jesus said, 'It is finished.' With that, he bowed his head and gave up his spirit." - John 19:28-30 "Most people would expect the Good Thief, who is nearly always shown on Christ's right, to be in the light; yet Rembrandt illumines the Bad Thief, crucified on his left. This is not as perverse as it seems. We understand that what saves us is not to be in the light, but to be able to see it, to recognize the presence of God. The Bad Thief cannot see the light, that surrounds him, for he is blindfolded -- a physical indication of his spiritual blindness. As he dies he writhes in anguish." -Neil MacGregor, Seeing Salvation. "One of the criminals who hung there hurled insults at him: “Aren’t you the Messiah? Save yourself and us!” But the other criminal rebuked him. “Don’t you fear God,” he said, “since you are under the same sentence? We are punished justly, for we are getting what our deeds deserve. But this man has done nothing wrong.” Then he said, “Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom.” Jesus answered him, “Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in paradise.” -Luke 23: 39-43 "At noon, darkness came over the whole land until three in the afternoon. And at three in the afternoon Jesus cried out in a loud voice, “Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani?” (which means “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”)." -Mark 15:33-34 " [Chagall] transformed the traditional subject of the Christian iconography of the Christus patiens into the lyrical testimony of the condition of the Jews, presenting Jesus as a martyr and the symbol of his peoples' suffering. Chagall replaced Jesus' traditional loincloth with a tallit, a prayer shawl, the crown of thorns with a headcloth, and the mourning angels that customarily surround him with three biblical patriarchs and a matriarch, clad in traditional Jewish garments." -Divine Beauty Exhibition Guide "No one has ever really understood who this Jesus really was. One of our most loving rabbis who always helped the needy, the persecuted[...] For me, he is the archetype of the greatest Jewish martyr of all time." -Artist Marc Chagall "Jesus said, 'Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.'" -Luke 23:34 Vesperbild & Pietà "The image of pain evokes the sufferings of all mothers in a cry that pierces through time: the image is vibrant, the image is surprising. Christian devotion... in an eternal scene of compassion." - L'osservatore Romano "As she holds Jesus' lifeless body on her lap, the Virgin's face emanates sweetness, serenity and a majestic acceptance of this immense sorrow, combined with her faith in the Redeemer. It seems almost as if Jesus is about to reawaken from a tranquil sleep and that after so much suffering and thorns, the rose of resurrection is about to bloom. As we contemplate the Pietà which conveys peace and tranquility, we can feel that the great sufferings of this life and its pain can be mitigated." -- Saint Peter's Basilica. Deposition & Entombment "Taking Jesus’ body, the two of them wrapped it, with the spices, in strips of linen. This was in accordance with Jewish burial customs. At the place where Jesus was crucified, there was a garden, and in the garden a new tomb, in which no one had ever been laid. Because it was the Jewish day of Preparation and since the tomb was nearby, they laid Jesus there."-John 19:40-42 "The gleaming white shroud is being used to bear Christ, to lower him lovingly and reverently down from the Cross into the sepulcher. It is not a sepulcher that stands below, but at the altar -- and for the Church the altar is Christ's sepulcher. Here the body sacrificed for others will be distributed as the eucharistic host -- just as the basin of blood Rubens painted beneath the Cross will reappear as the eucharistic wine." --Neil MacGregor, Seeing Salvation.
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The Lenten Season is officially upon us, embodied by a spirit of reflection and repentance culminating in the Celebration of Easter on April 16th. As there is an undeniable influence of Christian theology on the history of art, every Sunday of Lent we will explore art with distinctly Christian themes in a methodology known as visual theology. Some posts will contain brief biographical, iconographic and/or formal analysis as well. This week is dedicated to the parable of the Good Samaritan: a story (and its imagery) indelibly tied to Jesus' story of sacrifice and salvation. "Just then a lawyer stood up to test Jesus. “Teacher,” he said, “what must I do to inherit eternal life?” He said to him, “What is written in the law? What do you read there?” He answered, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.” And he said to him, “You have given the right answer; do this, and you will live.” But wanting to justify himself, he asked Jesus, “And who is my neighbor?” Jesus replied, “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell into the hands of robbers, who stripped him, beat him, and went away, leaving him half dead. Now by chance a priest was going down that road; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. So likewise a Levite, when he came to the place and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a Samaritan while traveling came near him; and when he saw him, he was moved with pity. He went to him and bandaged his wounds, having poured oil and wine on them. Then he put him on his own animal, brought him to an inn, and took care of him. The next day he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper, and said, ‘Take care of him; and when I come back, I will repay you whatever more you spend.’ Which of these three, do you think, was a neighbor to the man who fell into the hands of the robbers?” He said, “The one who showed him mercy.” Jesus said to him, “Go and do likewise.” LUKE 10: 25-37 The Good Samaritan, located in Luke 10: 25-37, is one of the most powerful parables within the Gospels. When asked how to inherit eternal life, Jesus responds with, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.” He then proceeds to elaborate on what constitutes one’s neighbor. Jesus tells the story of a man who left Jerusalem only to be beaten and robbed. He was passed over by both a priest and a Levite before a Samaritan, a then despised people among the Jews, stopped to help the destitute man. The Samaritan bandaged the man's wounds, gave him clothing and found him shelter at a nearby inn, even paying for his lodgings. Ultimately, the despised Samaritan best exemplified the image of love and mercy Jesus preached to his followers. With love and mercy also being the crux of Christ's Message, it is not surprising that this parable is found in Gothic churches throughout Europe or became the subject of numerous religious paintings. We will look at three examples of stained glass windows found within the gothic cathedrals of Chartres, Bourges and Sens and examine how they build upon one another theologically. There will also be brief discussion on The Good Samaritan by Aime-Nicolas Morot painted in 1880. What these works serve to highlight is the evolving nature of the parable thematically. While the Good Samaritan is often viewed as a beautiful story reinforcing how we should love our neighbor’s. The discussed artists, however, have reshaped the parable of the Good Samaritan to tell a different message: how Christ paid for our sins to renew a broken covenant. Of the three stained-glass windows, Chartes is the most simplistic in its theological message. As the images of the traveling man and Samaritan run down the center of the window, the outside is filled with images from the Old Testament. It chronicles the Fall and expulsion of Adam and Eve, but takes the Genesis story even further by concluding with the death of Abel by Cain. The ending to the Old Testament sections are quite bleak. They continue to reiterate our separation from God as a result of the Fall by highlighting the destructive acts of the Fallen. Yet, rather than continuing to live in this separation we are reunited with him and rescued. Our life is the road to Jericho; we chose to leave Eden and live among thieves, but we have been saved. The connection is not explicit as it will be illustrated through the windows of Bourges and Sens, but the window is ultimately stating that the parable of the Good Samaritan is an allegory for our return to a relationship with God.Bourges presents a far more complex theological message with its stained glass representation of the Good Samaritan. The window also parallels Genesis alongside that of the parable, but it additionally draws upon the story of Moses and the Crucifixion in order to create a clearer and more profound storyline. Paired together in the top quatrefoil are the man leaving Jerusalem with the Creation of Adam and Eve by God. These are indicative of the beginning, when humanity was still in relationship with God. This is followed by the temptation of Adam and Eve alongside the man being attacked on the road by thieves and the very similar scene of the expulsion with the man being stripped and robbed of his possessions. Both of these quatrefoils are showcasing the same point: that the moment of the man's journey parallels the moment humanity was tempted in the Garden and was ultimately cast of Eden. This is the lowest point in the man's journey as well as one of the lowest points for humanity in the Bible. Yet, mankind's disgrace continues as the window pairs Moses and the creation of the golden calf with the priest and Levite passing the beaten man. Just as Moses was provided with the Law to redeem mankind from the Fall in the garden, the priest and Levite were given the opportunity to grant the man mercy. Yet, both fail as they turn their backs on God by turning their backs on their neighbor. Bourges does not end as bleakly as Chartres, however, and provides a final quatrefoil of redemption and grace. The Samaritan, who closely resembles a glorified Christ, rescues the man and brings him safely home towards the inn keeper. Strikingly placed with these images is the representation of Christ on the cross--saving man kind mind from sin, the ultimate symbol of God's mercy. Similar to Chartres, Bourges illustrates the results of humanity's separation from God. The window brings it to a more satisfying conclusion, however, by finishing the narrative with Christ's death on the Cross. It is only through Christ's death that we can finally return to a relationship with God. Thus, it is highly intentional that the Samaritan resembles Christ, for he is the one leading us away from the life among thieves back to the inn, symbolic of his Church: our place of salvation and restoration . He paid for our sins just as the Samaritan paid the innkeeper. Although Bourges provides a much more complete theological message than the window of Chartres, its attempts to create multiple parallels unintentionally weakens its powerful message. Therefore, this is why--theologically--Sens has the strongest of all three Good Samaritan Windows. The Good Samaritan window at Sens abbreviates the parable to its absolute essentials, while still expanding upon the stories from the Old Testament and Crucifixion. At the very top of the window is a holy city, symbolic of heavenly Jerusalem and the city the man leaves while setting out on the road to Jericho. Once again, the story of the Good Samaritan runs through the center of the window as parallels are drawn around it. First are the creation, temptation and expulsion, which are all, paired with the man being attacked on the road by thieves. The parallel is the same as it was in the other windows, but is stronger and more concise by keeping the beating/robbery with both the temptation and the Expulsion. Moses and the golden calf are again are paired with the priest and Levite continuing commentary on mankind's fall from grace as the holy men destroy their second chance at relationship with God. Sens concludes with a fuller description of the Passion and crucifixion with the Samaritan rescuing the beaten man and taking him safely to the inn. This time, the beaten man, rather than the Samaritan, heavily resembles Christ, but the overall theological implications are still similar. The most striking difference is the angel at the crucifixion. He is the same angel barring the gates of Eden following the expulsion of Adam and Eve. Yet, now his sword is sheathed for through Christ's sacrifice our sins have been redeemed. Both God's mercy through Christ's death and our mercy given to our neighbors restore the relationship with God that was destroyed by the Fall and perpetuated when we failed to uphold God's Law. Interestingly, most images of the Good Samaritan have one of the men resemble Christ. For instance, in Bourges the Samaritan was shown in the image of Christ, whereas Sens paints Christ as the beaten man. By switching which man is Christ, the theological message alters. As Christ, the Samaritan is symbolically returning us to God's kingdom. We are no longer living beaten and among thieves on the road to Jericho, but in close relationship with God. Yet, when the beaten man represents Jesus there are several implications. First it may be drawing upon the beatings prior to Christ's death on the cross, or they can be a reference to Matthew 25:40 "Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me."
Meanwhile, Sens and Morot show that while Christ did redeem us, our relationship with God is not fully restored until we all see others as Jesus saw them: worthy of our unconditional love and mercy. Most importantly, they highlight that we have not walked among thieves alone. Since the expulsion, humanity has been barred from Eden and a true relationship with God. We have been beaten, robbed and shown a lack of mercy. Yet, Christ shared in our journey and shared in our pains. He paid the ultimate price for our sins and suffering through his sacrifice on the cross: a final act of mercy. The angel can finally sheath his sword. Our debt has been paid. A relationship with God finally restored. Full Size of the Chartres Good Samaritan Window Full Size of the Bourges Good Samaritan Window Full Size of the Sens Good Samaritan Window Should you be interested in looking more closely at the full windows, I encourage you to check out: http://www.medievalart.org.uk/index.html . It includes a wonderful repository of images for the discussed windows in addition to many others of the famous French Gothic cathedrals. Over the next couple months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout history. Today's post will conclude our discussion on one of the first: Hildegard von Bingen. Having looked at her early life and religious works, we will complete our examination of her contributions to the church and the full manifestation of her theology as seen through her various works. Following the completion of Scivias and the death of her beloved secretary, Richardis, Hildegard began the most prolific and ambitious period in her life. In 1154, King Frederick I Barbarossa, the Holy Roman emperor of Germany, invited Hildegard to meet him at Ingelheim. Following the successful meeting, he granted unlimited royal protection to the cloister at Rupertsburg.[i] Even during the great Schism of 1159,[ii] when Hildegard chastised the emperor for electing an anti-pope, the two maintained a mutually beneficial relationship.[iii] Several years later, in 1165, Hildegard established a daughter monastery at Eibingen [iv] (Figure1). Following yet another debilitating illness and near death, Hildegard received a revelation. God had asked her to travel and preach, to spread his word throughout the continent. Such an undertaking by a woman was unprecedented. In 1158, Hildegard began the first of four long preaching journeys that took her as far south as Switzerland and as far east as Paris.[v] She traveled by horseback, foot and ship[vi] speaking to the entirety of the Christian community: clergy, laity, monks, nuns and ecclesiastical officials.[vii] Plagued throughout this time by bodily weakness and further illness, Hildegard's preaching journeys were spread out over the course of thirteen years.[viii] Despite traveling across the continent, Hildegard continued to evolve her feminine theology and expand her artistic abilities. Hildegard's gifts knew no bounds. "God's plentitude expressed itself in her seemingly endless variety of projects and writings"[ix] as she pursued illustration, music, poetry, medicine and other secular writings. She wrote two biographies of saints, both the patron saints of her cloisters: St. Rupert and St. Disibode.[x] In addition to her three theological writings (Scivias, De Operatione Dei and Liber Vitae Meritorum), Hildegard published six secular writings on medicine, nature and healing. Included among these books was Liber Simplicis Medicinae, which offers pharmaceutical advice on the healing properties of plants and elements from nature. The other was entitled Liber Composital Medicinae, a book that discusses symptoms, causes and cures of numerous physical ailments.[xi] Aside from her place as a historical visionary and author, over seventy-six songs were written by this Renaissance woman. Hildegard is the only composer in the history of Western music who was also a respected Theologian and has more monophonic chants attributed to her name than any other composer in the medieval time period.[xii] Although her music was primarily written for the offices and masses of her convent,[xiii] her music is still widely recognized and played today in the twenty-first century. Hildegard's "unrhymed, unmetrical songs, wholly unpredictable…follow the rhythms of thought alone. Their content belongs to the twelfth-century, but their form anticipates the twentieth."[xiv] Her most ambitious musical undertaking was a morality play, Ordo Virtutum (Play of Virtues), which has no medieval parallel [xv] as the first and only morality play set to music.[xvi] Hildegard concluded this prolific artistic career with her last theological and artistic undertaking, a book of visions and images called De Operatione Dei. De Operatione Dei (Book of Divine Works), was completed in 1173 and is regarded as Hildegard’s finest creation.[xvii] The book is also known as Liber Divinorum Operum. Her visions and accompanying illustrations within the text demonstrate "the consistency of Hildegard's thought in creating a female divinity."[xviii] Caritas is one Hildegard's most inspired and progressive theophanic images. Standing in the center of the illustration is a commanding female representation of divine love, Caritas (Figure 2). She stands holding the divine Lamb of God as a "male godhead erupts"[xix] from the top of her being (Figure 3). Lying underneath the feet of Caritas, crushed and vanquished is the personification of evil. To the bottom right of the image is an attached illustration of Hildegard herself, eyes lifted to heaven and seated with Volmar transcribing the revelation as it appears before her (Figure 4). Initially, the image appears as a rather traditional depiction of the Holy Trinity: God the Father with Christ the slain Lamb. Yet, the anthropomorphic rendering of the Holy Spirit as a female of divine love[xx] is a theology unique to Hildegard. Furthermore, the female figure is the most prominent in the manuscript. God the father exists not of His own accord, but sprouts from the head of the female Holy Spirit. "The generation of God the Father from the Holy Spirit's head explicitly implies that male’s dignity derives from female intellect."[xxi] In Caritas, Hildegard created a theophany dependent upon a feminine ideology. This theological view directly challenged the centuries-old perception of a male centered faith and creation story. If God arose from the wisdom of a female Holy Spirit, then woman, not just man, was created in the true image of God. Neither superior, but both equal before the eyes of God. With the completion of her final book and the preaching tours coming to an end, Hildegard remained at her cloister until her final days. Upon the publication of De Operatione Dei, in 1173, Hildegard's beloved secretary Volmar passed away. A new monk, Gottfried, was Volmar's replacement until his death in 1176.[xxii] During his short time as Hildegard's secretary, Gottfried composed Vita, the first biography of Hildegard of Bingen along with another monk, Theodoric.[xxiii] Hildegard's final secretary, a highly educated monk named Wibert, edited her works more than she desired, thus creating a high level of friction up until her death on September 17, 1179[xxiv]. Despite the subsequent Gregorian reforms which limited the active roles of women within the church,[xxv] Hildegard was quickly venerated as a saint. The canonization process began in 1233, set forth by Pope Gregory IX. Sadly, her beatification was never concluded. There have been three attempts to canonize Hildegard of Bingen as a saint, but due to the lack of evidence in recording her miracles, it is unlikely she will ever be declared an official saint.[xxvi] Nonetheless, her works have not been overlooked by the Church, or its leaders. During his reign, Pope John Paul II called Hildegard an "outstanding saint …[who was] a light to her people and her time [who] shines out more brightly today."[xxvii] Hildegard provided a light for God and the arts that will never be diminished. Hildegard of Bingen was not just one of the greatest women of her time, but one of the greatest theologians and artists of the Middle Ages. "Her movement beyond just the textual into the text and image makes it hard to find peers with whom to compare her."[xxviii] Meanwhile, her musical compositions were centuries ahead of their time and her morality play has yet to find an equal nearly a thousand years later. In addition, Hildegard was one of the first women to openly challenge the patriarchal domination of the Church and infuse it with a feminine theology all her own. Hildegard must not be forgotten or overlooked, nor can she only be discussed in the context of female artists; a trap many of today’s art historians and scholars have fallen into. Rather, she must be compared with the greatest men of her time. When this comparison is made in greater depth, the world will finally see that Hildegard of Bingen has no comparison, even among men. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 [i] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 107.
[ii] Following the death of Pope Adrian IV, the Papal election of 1159 resulted in the election of Pope Alexander III. Several Cardinals, however, refused to recognize him and elected Ottaviano de Monticelli, who took the name Victor IV. The Church sought out King Frederick I Barbarossa’s support, then Holy Roman emperor of Germany. He did not side with the Church majority, but rather supported Victor IV. [iii] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 13. [iv] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 4. [v] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [vi] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 25. [vii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [viii] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 25. [ix] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 26. [x] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 6. [xi] Ibid. [xii] Fassler, "Music for the Love Feast: Hildegard of Bingen and the Song of Songs," 355. [xiii] Wilson and Margolis, Women in the Middle Ages, 701. [xiv] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 25. [xv] Wilson and Margolis, Women in the Middle Ages, 701. [xvi] Fassler, "Music for the Love Feast: Hildegard of Bingen and the Song of Songs," 356. [xvii] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 17. [xviii] Ibid. [xix] Ibid. [xx] Ibid. [xxi] Ibid. [xxii] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 14. [xxiii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 26. [xxiv] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [xxv] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 19. [xxvi] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 15. [xxvii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [xxviii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 30. Over the next several months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout history. Today's post will continue our discussion on one of the first: Hildegard von Bingen. Having looked at her early life in the church, we will now take a closer look at the evolution of her theology as manifested in Scivias. "In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy, your young men will see visions, your old men will dream dreams. Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy" -Acts 2:17-18 Completed over ten years, 1141-1151, Hildegard of Bingen's Scivias was an opus containing over thirty-five visions with accompanying images "set among a frenzied prophetic sense of peril…[for] the church."[i] Scivias, was shortened from three Latin words, scito bias domini, meaning "know the ways of the Lord."[ii] Hildegard’s spiritual revelations in Scivias all had three primary components: 1.) The ability to see the hidden things within our world or the world of God 2.) The actual experience of 'seeing' and 3.) The content of the vision itself.[iii] Thus, when Scivias was written it focused on both a detailed explanation of the dream itself, in addition to Hildegard's actual experience of seeing the hidden truths revealed. The publication signified that women were just as receptive to divine revelation as were men.[iv] Hildegard was called a female prophet, likened to the Old Testament prophets Deborah, Judith and even Jeremiah.[v] Yet, Hildegard only criticized the present, believing it would bring about a greater future for the Church, its leaders, servants and community; she did not believe she was prophesying. "She taught that now a woman would prophesy for the scandal of men and in her two most severe images of the demonic, patriarchy is itself pictured in the league of the devil."[vi] Although those may be Hildegard's most scathing images found within Scivias, her most profound illuminated manuscripts illustrate that men and women are both partner's in God's work,[vii] while highlighting the irreplaceable role of women within the Church. For the twelfth-century, Self-Portrait in Scivias is a unique blend of art and personal self-expression. The manuscript shows a building with Hildegard to the left under descending tongues of fire licking the surface of her face. She holds a tablet with a stylus in her hand for writing or drawing. Volmar is witness to the revelation, as he stands to her right. Little is known regarding how involved Hildegard was in the actual manufacture of the miniature illustrations found within Scivias. Nonetheless, most scholars believe that while receiving her visions, Hildegard drew rough sketches onto clay or wax tablets.[viii] These images then served as the inspiration for the completed images of Scivias, in which Hildegard directly supervised the execution.[ix] Therefore, this image depicts Hildegard in the act of receiving and illustrating her vision. Referencing the flames of the Holy Spirit from the Pentecost in the Book of Acts, the image marks the beginning of Hildegard’s missionary journey. Her beginnings mirror the apostles of the early Christian Church. "She was awakened by the parted tongues of fire that makes sense of babble and allows deep communication to happen among peoples."[x] Even after Papal approval of Hildegard's visions, she was deemed as insane. When he spoke in foreign tongues during the feat of Pentecost, Peter, the 'founder' of the Christian Church, was also viewed as unstable or disillusioned. Not only is Hildegard depicting herself as a recipient of God's divine revelation in Self-Portrait, but she is aligning herself with one of the two most powerful men of the early Christian Church, Saint Peter. Hildegard is the new apostle. In her biography, Vita, written by one of her later secretaries, Gottfried and the monk Theodoric, she is said to have received the "sting of divine punishment and become sick"[xi] due to her hesitance in writing down her visions from an early age. Self-Portrait portrays a woman who is now fully awakened and receptive to the ways and words of God. Hildegard compared wisdom with being awake and foolishness with being asleep. She will remain silent or asleep no more. As the flames kiss her face, Hildegard's eyes open, waking up to the Holy Spirit, aware of the message that is being presented to her and ready to present it to the Church and its peoples. Self-Portrait was one of the first images to be completed for Scivias. Taking nearly ten years to complete, Scivias is a fascinating examination on the evolution of Hildegard of Bingen's theology. During the following years of completion, however, Hildegard and the women of St. Disibode underwent several major upheavals. Shortly after the death of Jutta, pilgrims came to St. Disibode to visit her body, seeking miracles and intercession. The visitors were so frequent and noisy, the sisters had difficulty in practicing their silent prayers and offices.[xii] In addition, Hildegard began fighting for independence from the overly protective male monastery; thus leading her to seek a new cloister for the sisters. Then one day in a divine revelation, she was shown the location of where she and her fellow sisters were to take up residence: Rupertsburg in Bingen, along the Rhine River.[xiii] Abbott Kuno, however, fiercely opposed the move. Upon this refusal, Hildegard grew deathly ill. She solicited the help of the Archbishop Henry of Mainz and Countess von Stade, the mother of her secretary, Richardis.[xiv] In 1148, word was received from the archbishop that Abbott Kuno must let Hildegard and the women leave the cloister for Rupertsburg (Figure 1). Once Kuno's consent was finally given, Hildegard miraculously recovered from her mysterious illness.[xv] The new cloister at Rupertsburg, built on the holy grounds of Saint Rupert's former home, was state of the art for the mid-twelfth-century. It included a scriptorium, space for up to fifty nuns and running water in every room.[xvi] Volmar followed Hildegard to Rupertsburg and helped her establish the new cloister while still remaining her trusted secretary. Sadly, her other secretary and sister, Richardis von Stade, was offered the position of abbess at another monastery shortly after the move. After significant disagreement and unrest, Hildegard authorized Richardis' move, but Richardis died within weeks of the transfer.[xvii] It was in this environment that Hildegard completed and began her largest undertakings in addition to evolving her distinct feminine theology. In the midst of these events, Hildegard continued the production of Scivias, including one of her most unique and fascinating illuminated manuscripts, Ecclesia with Virginitas and Her Companions (Figure 2). The image contains Ecclesia wrapping her arms around numerous figures representing the monastic community. Ecclesia (the church) is depicted in the Hellenistic fashion as a crowned angelic figure maintaining a formal pose and holding numerous figures in her arms. Most notably, Ecclesia is female and the central figure of the image. Based on a hieratic scale, Ecclesia is the largest figure with the church community held within her arms depicted in a much smaller fashion. Standing prominently in front of Ecclesia's enclosed arms is a virginal orant in a red tunic. Behind her, are numerous virgins and a few priests and monks. Ecclesia is a statement about the various roles of the Church and its community of believers. Although the image’s hieratic scale emphasizes the Church's importance, its greater purpose is to illustrate the size of the Church as a whole. Hildegard is stating that the Church is a large entity which encompasses a worldwide community of believers. The illumination that was a trademark of such illustrated manuscripts, highlights the transcendent imagery within Ecclesia.[xviii] Furthermore, the three primary colors of the image's composition are symbolic of various aspects of the Christian community. White is symbolic for the priesthood, purple represents the monastic community of men and women while blue stood for the married laity.[xix] Three colors representing the totality of the Christian community, just as three beings comprise the totality of the Holy Trinity. Although Hildegard regards the entire Christian community and Church, her greater emphasis in Ecclesia is on the female religious community, more specifically, the virgins.[xx] For Hildegard, the woman's soul was the greatest expression of the image of God;[xxi] therefore her theological emphasis in the image was on the roles of the virgins within the Church. All the virgins in the image are crowned, some have even been martyred.[xxii] These women were most important element of the Christian church in the eyes of Hildegard.[xxiii] By doing so, a strong parallel has been drawn to all the nuns who have taken a lifetime vow of chastity to better serve God and glorify Christ. These nuns and virgins are the heart of Ecclesia. Strong women, she is saying, are the wisest ones and the most courageous workers. Virginity is not being celebrated as holier than sexual experience, but for producing wise and courageous workers. It is a fruitful virginity that is celebrated here, one of independence from patriarchy's dark shadow.[xxiv] Hildegard's insights challenged traditional medieval thinking not only for venerating the female members of the church more greatly than the men, but for celebrating virgins for their fruitful works, and not for their 'untainted virtue.' Figure 1 Figure 2 [i] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 29.
[ii] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 5. [iii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 33. [iv] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 16. [v] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen , 10. [vi] Ibid., 14. [vii] Ibid. [viii] Emmerson, "The Representation of Antichrist in Hildegard of Bingen's Scivias: Image, Word, Commentary, and Visionary Experience," 95. [ix] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 33. [x] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen , 27. [xi] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 44. [xii] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 4. [xiii] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 38. [xiv] Ibid., 107. [xv] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 27-28. [xvi] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 107. [xvii] Ibid., 108. [xviii] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 17. [xix] Ibid. [xx] Ibid. [xxi] Ibid., 19. [xxii] Ibid., 17. [xxiii] Ibid. [xxiv] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen , 72 Over the next several months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout history. Today's post will begin with one of the first: Hildegard von Bingen. Starting with her early life in the church, subsequent posts will discuss the evolution of her theology as manifested in her various illuminated manuscripts. In the High Middle Ages of the German Renaissance--an era dominated by men--there emerged a single woman. She surpassed kings and popes in notoriety and personal accomplishments during her lifetime. She was a prolific writer, poet and musician. She was an artist. She was a visionary. She was Hildegard of Bingen. Hildegard was an innovative female figure of the monastic community who put women in the forefront of the arts and theological society. Through her revolutionary writings, visions, and illuminated manuscripts, Hildegard of Bingen created a theophany of the feminine that challenged the patriarchal domination of the Church while elevating the theological roles of women in medieval society. Upon birth, Hildegard's life was already given over to the service of God. Born the tenth child to a German knight at the castle of Bickelheim in 1098, it is believed Hildegard was "tithed"[i] to the Benedictine monastery of St. Disibode;[ii] she was given over on her eighth birthday. Prior to this consecration, Hildegard had already begun having visions as well as experiencing mysterious illnesses by the age of five. It was not for another thirty-eight years, however, that she was instructed to write about her spiritual revelations.[iii] Hildegard’s new home, St. Disibode, was the home of Jutta of Sponheim, a woman whom she came to view as both her mentor and educator (Figure 1). As a highly revered abbess of the monastery’s cloisters, Jutta was responsible for Hildegard’s education. Jutta molded Hildegard into an accomplished scholar, instructing her in biblical exegesis, the natural sciences, music, early Christian writings as well as philosophy.[iv] Hildegard spent the next thirty-five years at the cloister, advancing her training in, and understanding of, Latin while continuing to battle with her debilitating migraines and physical infirmities. Despite her formidable education, Hildegard’s historical significance truly began with the death of her educator and mentor Jutta, in 1136. Hildegard was elected the new abbess of the cloister by her fellow sisters,[v] marking the beginnings of her reputation as a revolutionary female Theologian and artist. During Hildegard’s time as abbess, she began to further evolve and expand upon her theological ideologies, most notably in her affirmation of a feminine theology. The twelfth-century gave rise to the cult of Mary which promoted an unattainable ideal for women. While the Virgin Mary was being venerated as a saint, women were being devalued and degraded for their inability to maintain such an ideal of virtue. Hildegard recognized the dangers of such an ideology and challenged the sentimentalization of Mary by creating awe-inspiring images of female spirituality. She did so through her teachings, within her numerous illuminated manuscripts and years later in her music.[vi] Themes centralized on God as mother, cosmic hospitality and art as meditation became the focus of her works and future preaching.[vii] Furthermore the male-dominated Church had focused on the doctrines of Saint Augustine’s Fall/Redemption ideology for centuries. Hildegard’s theology drastically contested these beliefs as the cosmic Christ and creation stories became a central focus to her work.[viii] Rather than concentrating on humanity’s estrangement from God, Hildegard examined how Christ was the spiritual force directing men and women to evolve spiritually in addition to their spiritual relationship with God’s creation. Her work began to fill the in gaps of a theology that had long over-looked women and their roles within the Church and God’s created world.[ix] In the midst of these theological manifestations, Hildegard received a revelation. When I was forty-two years and seven months old, a burning light of tremendous brightness coming from heaven poured into my entire mind. Like a flame does not burn but enkindles, it inflamed my entire heart and my entire breast, just like the sun that warms an object with its rays… All of a sudden, I was able to taste of the understanding of the narration of books.[x] Through a vision of light, God had appointed Hildegard as his messenger. She could no longer withhold her visions or remain silent; Hildegard was called to profess the word of the living light to God's people. As a woman, it was these visions that gave Hildegard her power and influence within the Church. Without them, "she would be a merely presumptuous female; with it found she had power precisely because that power came from God not her."[xi] She was simply a vessel used to channel the Word of God. Hildegard further emphasized her humble means, lowly female status and inability to write Latin in order to heighten the divine origins of her inspiration.[xii] Being female only meant shame for the men and priests who had grown negligent in their duties and unresponsive to God's guidance—not shame for Hildegard.[xiii] Despite the power of Hildegard's visions and their eventual international influence, she was initially brought under intense scrutiny from the Benedictine monks and other men of the Church. From the onset of her first vision in 1141, Hildegard shared her spiritual gift with Volmar, a trusted monk from her monastery in St. Disibode. As her initial confidant, Volmar recorded several of Hildegard's visions and shared them with Abbott Kuno, requesting his permission as the head of the monastery to transcribe the rest of her revelations.[xiv] Upon hearing this, Abbott Kuno called together the wisest men of the local cloisters to evaluate the validity of Hildegard's visions.[xv] The men were not responsive. Hildegard knew that spreading the message of her visions was imperative due to their divine origins; thus, she took matters into her own hands. A council of Bishops was to be held in nearby Trier and attended by one of the most powerful abbots and Doctor of the Church, Bernard Clairvaux. Knowing what transpired at the council would be passed on to Pope Eugenius III, Hildegard wrote a letter to Clairvaux beseeching his approval, not only of the divine origins of her visions, but also requesting official permission to share them.[xvi] The letter was presented at the Synod of Bishops at Trier of 1147-1148. After a favorable reception at the synod, Pope Eugenius III wrote to Hildegard and encouraged her "in the name of Christ and Saint Peter"[xvii] to share God's word and continue writing. This marked the beginning of Hildegard's strong, and often influential, relationship with the Pope(s) that both supported and pushed the Church leader to work harder for the church communities and strive for monastic reform.[xviii] With official Papal approval, Hildegard, with her secretaries Volmar and Richardis von Stade, began to work more earnestly on her magnum opus, Scivias (Figure 2). Figure 1 Figure 2 [i] Hildegard was given over to service within the Church since she was the tenth child in her family. As it is expected to give a tithe to the Church, 10% of one’s income, it is possible that being blessed with so many children during a time with a high mortality rate, Hildegard’s parents felt the need to express their gratitude by tithing their child. The practice, however, was not standardized or demanded by the Church of its followers.
[ii] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 4. [iii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 27. [iv] Store, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 16. [v] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 4. [vi] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 19. [vii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen , 12. [viii] Ibid. [ix] Fox, “Hildegard of Bingen: Cosmic Christ, Religion of Experience, God the Mother,” in Knowledge of Reality, online.[x] Ibid., 9. [xi] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 33. [xii] Ibid., 37. [xiii] Ibid. [xiv] Emmerson, "The Representation of Antichrist in Hildegard of Bingen's Scivias: Image, Word, Commentary, and Visionary Experience," 95. [xv] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 38. [xvi] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 16. [xvii] Jaoudi, "Religion and Ecology: Hildegard of Bingen," 67. [xviii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen , 7. |
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