Over the next few months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout art history. Today's discussion will conclude our two-part look into Elaine de Kooning. Her bold artistic spirit was vital to the early New York art scene and de Kooning's daringly sexual 'Faceless Men' series provided thematic inspiration for the decidedly masculine Abstract Expressionist movement. Abstract Expressionism ushered into its golden era with the dawn of the 1950s, and Elaine's evocative, gestural portraits only further solidified her influence within the movement. Her portraits were characteristic of the Abstract Expressionist's emotive and gestural style. Furthermore, she continued to write for Art News and act as both inspiration and friendly rival to her husband Willem. Despite the love and admiration she shared for her husband, Elaine found the name 'de Kooning' distasteful. In addition, she quickly noticed that when the name was mentioned, people thought of Willem before (and often instead of) her. During this time she began to sign her works with her trademark 'E de K,' allowing Elaine to maintain her identity without altogether forgoing the connection to Willem. [i] Her work bared the "mark of fierce scrutiny and fresh insight"[ii] that came to characterize the rest of her career. This intense scrutiny lead to the success of her ‘Faceless Men’ as Elaine was able to capture "what determined the character, the body language, [and] the very being of the person."[iii] Even in the most abstract of her portraits, Michel Sonnebend #1, the sitter’s character and sexual energy were successfully captured. Painted in 1951, Michel Sonnebend #1, is the most abstract and gestural of Elaine's Faceless Men. Sonnebend's face and form are merely hinted at as they are loosely outlined through application of color and line. Forced to the front of the picture plane, the figure almost dissolves into the flat background as another series of "wildly and randomly applied brushstrokes."[iv] Bold shades of blues, yellows, greens, reds and whites are juxtaposed and applied throughout the canvas in a thick impasto. Once again, Elaine omits the sitter's facial features, but this time the figure's form is barely present when compared to the earlier portrait of Al Lazar. Yet, Sonnebend is still a figure with mass. This is quite possibly Elaine's greatest challenge to the history of portraiture. She manages to capture the psyche of her subject not through their facial psychology or clothing, but through color and line. Elaine's rhythmic and kinetic application of bold colors is as much a statement of Sonnebend's personality as they are of her artistic style. In addition, she continues to emphasize her sitter's sexual energy through focusing the viewer's gaze upon Sonnebend's crotch, the lightest spot (white and pale blue) on the canvas. Through use of color and these gestural means, Elaine directly confronts "the 'male privilege' of sitting in an open-legged position,"[v] by defining it as the essence of masculinity. Ultimately, her portrait became a challenge to the intensely masculine world of Abstract Expressionism. Through the evolution of her faceless portraits, Elaine continued to play around with capturing the identity of her sitters while ignoring their unique physical features. Here in lies the success of her series of sitting, faceless men, “showing the tension between recognition and misrecognition of those portrayed: The more she attempted to represent her male sitters, the more ‘empty’ their faces became.”[vi] Elaine thrived when painting in the presence of an audience; doing so also kept her sitters lively throughout the painting process, [vii] allowing their personalities to transcend onto the canvas. She always “feared the consistency of a recognizable style,” [viii] which lead to the widely varying styles of her men. Experimenting with the rules of portraiture was love for Elaine, and she continued to do so as the series progressed. In a style altogether different than her earlier portraits of Al Lazar and Michel Sonnebend, Elaine painted her most sexually charged and identifiable male figure to date in Fairfield Porter #1. Showcasing the diversity and evolution of Elaine's portraiture is Fairfield Porter #1, painted in 1954. By far the most confrontational and erotic of her faceless men, Porter is pushed to the foreground in the signature open-leg stance. The portrait is the least abstract of her series as both figure and setting are easily identifiable and readily defined. Nonetheless, Elaine maintains her painterly application of paint throughout the canvas in dynamic, angular brushstrokes. While not as monochromatic or muted as Al Lazar #2, the color palette of Fairfield Porter #1 lacks the striking juxtapositions of color found within Michel Sonnebend #1, with its naturalistic cool tones of blues and greens and warm golden background. Color again is used to direct the viewer's attention to Porter's crotch; his tie acting as a bright red arrow. Further focusing the eye on the groin, the figure's hands are framed on either side of his inner thighs. Fairfield Porter exudes sexuality, even his empty eye sockets seem to pierce the viewer's gaze with a palpable sensual tension. Elaine’s close relationship and identification with her male sitters allowed for her to successfully render her subjects.[ix] Porter was both friend and painter, a figure whom Elaine felt comfortable subjugating as a merely sexualized object. The portrait reads as an "invitation to visually consume his sexualized body." [x] Upon completion of Fairfield Porter #1, Elaine successfully re-evaluated the historical traditions of portraiture and reversed the standard artist and model dynamic.[xi] As her career began to soar, Elaine’s marriage started to disintegrate. Willem and Elaine’s love was passionate, but explosive and destructive. Both had numerous extramarital affairs: Elaine with gallery owner Charles Egan, Harold Rosenberg and previous subject, Al Lazar; Willem with his many female models. [xii] Willem also began drinking heavily; he continued to drink until Elaine rescued him from the debilitating alcoholism many years later. [xiii] Following the completion of her Faceless Men series in 1957, Elaine accepted a teaching position at the University of New Mexico and officially separated from Willem. [xiv] Thus, began a new phase of her life and artistic career. Elaine de Kooning was no longer simply viewed as ‘the artist’s wife.’ After separating from Willem and moving to New Mexico, Elaine began her love affair with teaching (Figure 1). She viewed it as an extension of 'shop talk,' [xv] a chance to openly discuss artistic method and practice the latest techniques. During this time she travelled throughout the Southwest and Mexico, inspiring her second artistic series (Figure 2), Bullfighting (1957-1963). [xvi] She returned to New York in 1962 when she received a portrait commission for President John F. Kennedy. [xvii] (Figure 3) During her extensive career Elaine was only commissioned twice, the other for soccer phenom, Pele. [xviii] After spending the next year painting over a hundred different images of the President, Elaine went through psychological shock after Kennedy's assassination in 1963. It was over a year before she could pick up a paint brush again.[xix] Once she did, Elaine embarked on numerous other paintings including the Basketball & Baseball series, Bacchus series and her final endeavor, the Lascaux Cave series which she painted up until the year before her death. [xx] All of her works were heavily influenced by her travels throughout the world and her travels were also a direct result of her teaching career. She continued to teach throughout the world and the U.S., including U.C. Davis, the Pratt Institute and Yale. [xxi] Despite their amicable separation in 1957, Elaine and Willem moved back in together in 1977, having never officially separated. [xxii] They both owed their lives and their success to the other. Despite the poison they poured into each other's lives over their fifty years together, Elaine and Willem always maintained a mutual love and respect for one another. Sadly, Willem developed severe dementia by the 1980s as Elaine was diagnosed with lung cancer. Upon finishing her final exhibition on the Lascaux caves series, Elaine passed away on February 1, 1989. The art world mourned the loss of a revolutionary female figure; Willem was never told of her death. As a female painter and an artist's wife within the intensely masculine Abstract Expressionist movement, Elaine de Kooning has been relegated as a "parenthetical figure"[xxiii] next to her husband Willem. Often mentioned first as a critic and teacher, many forget the irreplaceable role she played as an artist within the development of the New York Art School of the 1940s and 1950s. Elaine cannot be studied within the context of traditional female portraiture for she was not a traditional painter. She challenged the notion of 'feminine' painting by creating some of the most masculine and overtly sexual imagery within one of the most masculine and sexually charged art historical movements to date. Her art also served as the inspiration to Willem's artistic genius. Thus, Elaine de Kooning was not just a woman among men, but an artist among her peers. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 i Jane K. Bledsoe, introduction to E de K: Elaine de Kooning, ed. Jane K. Bledsoe et al. (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 15.
ii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 25. iii Marjorie Luyckx, preface to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 13. iv Ibid., 14. v Celia S. Stahr, "Elaine de Kooning, Portraiture and the Politics of Sexuality," Genders 38 (2003), accessed April 29, 2012, http://www.genders.org/g38/g38_stahr.html. vi Isabelle Graw, "Abstract Expressionism in America," trans. Sara Ogger, Art Forum (2001), accessed May 1, 2012, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0268/is_1_40/ai_78637320/. vii Lawrence Campbell, “The Portraits,” in E de K: Elaine de Kooning, Ed. by Jane K. Bledsoe, et al., (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 34. viii Ibid., 35. ix Ibid. x Celia S. Stahr, "Elaine de Kooning, Portraiture and the Politics of Sexuality," Genders 38 (2003), accessed April 29, 2012, http://www.genders.org/g38/g38_stahr.html. xi Ibid. xii Justin Wolf, “Elaine de Kooning,” The Art Study Foundation, last modified 2012, accessed April 30, 2012, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-de-kooning-elaine.html. xiii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 28. xiv Ibid. xv Ibid. xvi Ibid. 30. xvii Lawrence Campbell, “The Portraits,” in E de K: Elaine de Kooning, Ed. by Jane K. Bledsoe, et al., (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 34. xviii Ibid. xix Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 30. xx Justin Wolf, “Elaine de Kooning,” The Art Study Foundation, last modified 2012, accessed April 30, 2012, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-de-kooning-elaine.htm. xxi Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 29. xxii Justin Wolf, “Elaine de Kooning,” The Art Study Foundation, last modified 2012, accessed April 30, 2012, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-de-kooning-elaine.htm. xxiii Ann Gibson, “Lee Krasner and Women’s Innovations in American Abstract Painting,” Art Journal 28 no.2 (2007): 11, accessed April 17, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20358126.
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Over the next few months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout art history. After concluding our exploration of Hildegard von Bingen, we now start a two-part look into Elaine de Kooning. Her bold artistic spirit was vital to the early New York art scene and de Kooning's daringly sexual 'Faceless Men' series provided thematic inspiration for the decidedly masculine Abstract Expressionist movement. Walking around the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art at the age of five, Elaine de Kooning, then Elaine Fried, already knew her place in the art world.[i] Her place would be anything but conventional. She saw her future residing among the greatest male artists of her time, working alongside them as a peer, not as another female lost in the shadows of male artistic greatness. As both an authoritative figure within the American based Abstract Expressionist movement and wife of the movement’s leading painter, Willem de Kooning, Elaine was a woman of influence. Her work challenged traditional notions of portraiture, sexuality and masculinity while simultaneously influencing her even more famous husband. Of her numerous painting series spanning over five decades, none was more significant than her first, the ‘Faceless Men.’ Elaine de Kooning's series of faceless men not only inspired Willem's famous Women series with their kinetic, expressive abstraction, but challenged traditional artistic views of masculinity in her confrontational approach to male sexuality. Born Elaine Fried to a Brooklyn family on March 12, 1918,[ii] the future artist was the first of four children. Early on, her mother Marie instilled a love for the arts on Elaine and the rest of her siblings.[iii] Upon her first visit to the Met in New York, Elaine knew she wanted to be a painter. Despite their often-contentious relationship, she remained forever indebted to her mother for immersing her into the artistic realms of theatre, ballet, and painting. This influence came to an abrupt halt, however, when Marie was reported for child neglect and committed to the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center.[iv] Elaine’s artistic aspirations were put on hold as she was forced to play surrogate mother to her three siblings while struggling to finish high school. Nonetheless, upon graduation in 1936, Elaine took off for New York.[v] Her first stop was Hunter College; she withdrew several weeks later complaining she was never near a paintbrush.[vi] After dropping out, Elaine moved to Manhattan and enrolled in two schools popular with young emerging artists, the Leonardo da Vinci Art School and the American Artists School.[vii] It was during her studies at the Leonardo da Vinci School that Elaine was introduced to and began her relationship with the single most influential person in her life and artistic career. He was a promising and talented artist who was the “most gifted painter in the school.”[viii] His name was Willem de Kooning. Upon meeting, the chemistry between then twenty year old Elaine and thirty-four year Willem was tangible. “When I met Bill de Kooning, I just knew that I had met the most important person I would ever know. I was mesmerized. Even then I knew he was a genius, a great painter—the most important painter at work in America. And I knew that I would marry him.”[ix] Both Elaine and Willem knew that the other would hold an irreplaceable role in their life and artistic career. Willem first served as Elaine’s teacher and instructor, even inviting her to paint at his studio. (Figure1) He was a demanding instructor, expecting nothing less than perfection. Nonetheless, his harsh criticisms became the foundation for which Elaine’s confidence in portrait painting would emerge.[x] She, too, began educating Willem in artistic expression. Thus, began a relationship of mutual influence as “eager student matched eager teacher; and as in all such cases, the teacher learned as much as the student.”[xi] Their artistic passion translated into an intense emotional romance. Elaine and Willem pursued their romance and in spite of strong family resistance, the two married in 1943, seven years after first meeting.[xii] Despite their marriage and her new place as the wife of Willem de Kooning, Elaine was not one to put on an apron and cook;[xiii] she never let her domestic role take precedence within her life.[xiv] Artist, not wife, remained Elaine’s primary role. Yet, these ideals soon came into direct conflict with the burgeoning New York art scene, but Elaine took delight in the challenge. Elaine relished in the artistic genius of her new husband.[xv] They gained status in Manhattan’s artistic sub-culture, Willem as the rising European genius of American abstraction and Elaine as his gregarious promoter. During that time she continued to paint, but Elaine came onto the scene in an artistic era dominated by American male ‘machismo.’ The end of World War II saw the rise of New York as the art capital of the western world and the development of the American Abstract Expressionist movement. The movement was spiritual, yet aggressive. Artists painted the intangible, yet the process was inherently physical. Critics and collectors felt the embodiment of the Abstract Expressionist lay in the masculine, emotionally damaged male artists like Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko and her husband, Willem. In addition, post-WWII’s return to traditional roles saw hesitancy among collectors to “take a chance on a woman painter, who might decide to turn the studio into a nursery.”[xvi] The 1940s and 50s were a time when self-sufficiency in women was both threatening and unnatural to men. Therefore, collectors sought Willem, not Elaine. Yet, when asked “How does it feel to be an artist yourself and to have to work in the shadow of your husband?” Elaine simply answered, “I don’t paint in his shadow. I work in his light.”[xvii] Simply put, Elaine did not see her marriage to Willem as a hindrance to the advancement of her career. She utilized his connections within the New York art scene to become a primary figure within the Abstract Expressionist movement, alongside friends and peers: Pollock, Krasner, Rothko, Newman and Motherwell. Elaine de Kooning solidified her place within Abstract Expressionism throughout the latter half of the 1940s. During this time she became a force within the industry making it “as a person, not as a woman…because it was too hard to be a woman.”[xviii] After being approached in 1948 by the chief editor of Art News, Elaine began writing as an art critic for the leading arts magazine of the day.[xix] The move was paramount in the American art scene as Elaine was the first artist to also become a critic.[xx] She began writing for two dollars a review, viewing criticism as a way to fully understand and clarify the visual works within her mind.[xxi] Immediately, Elaine became a highly respected critic in her unique approach to art criticism. As an artist herself, Elaine strayed from ever being too critical, focusing on the positive acts of the painting or artist; she knew she was superior only to the people who thought they were superior to her.[xxii] Later that year Elaine accompanied Willem to North Carolina as he accepted a summer teaching opportunity at the avant-garde Black Mountain College.[xxiii] Elaine painted frenetically throughout that summer. She also attended highly influential courses by the college's creator, Josef Albers, courses that left an indelible mark on all of her future works.[xxiv] In 1949 she co-founded the Eighth Street Club; modeled after the pre-war European cafés, it was a place for new and established artists to gather, drink and socialize.[xxv] Frank O’Hara and other members labeled her as the ‘White Goddess,’ a woman whom all adored.[xxvi] Although several artists had claimed "We don't need dames,"[xxvii] within Abstract Expressionism, Elaine had firmly solidified her own place among the New York Art School by the late 1940s. Her comfort and position amid the other leading artists of the day created the body of subjects that formed her future 'Faceless Men' series; first among them was Al Lazar. Beginning with Lazar as her first subject, Elaine de Kooning turned the tables on traditional portraiture and began a series that held profound influence on her husband Willem.
Lazar's sexual energy. Colors are warm monochromatic ochers and browns with traces of green. In Al Lazar, Elaine created an intensely masculine and sexually charged painting of a man who eventually became her lover. Recalling the numerous nudes and objectified female forms from her early trips to New York's museums, Elaine rejected the centuries-old privileged ‘male gaze.’ She explained, "Women painted women: Vigee-Lebrun, Mary Cassatt and so forth. And I thought, men always painted the opposite sex, and I wanted to paint men as sex objects."[xxxi] Elaine succeeded in her first attempt. She begins Lazar's objectification with the omission of all facial features. "Without the facial expression as a focal point, the viewer is confronted by Lazar's sexuality due to the open body language and the gesture of the paint handling."[xxxii] His crotch is emphasized by a glowing red hue surrounded by thick black triangular brushstrokes. Yet, Lazar's distinct personality emerges through the rendering of Elaine's angular and kinetic brushstrokes. Elaine masterfully "asserts the power of the female gaze"[xxxiii] on an objectified male sitter while still maintaining the unique identity of her subject. Al Lazar #2 also held a profound influence over Willem. The artist who previously criticized portraiture and was then known and praised for his abstract canvases began his famous Woman series the following year. He, too, chose to depict the opposite sex in an objectified manner through means of angular and thick gestural brushstrokes (Figure 2). With engorged breasts and generic features, Willem's Women also read as objectified members of the opposite sex. Yet, he fails, where Elaine succeeded, to capture the distinct identity of the women. Instead they read as totemistic fertility figures. Nonetheless, his most famous series is indebted to his wife. "Elaine's slashing series of male portraits…are more persuasive preludes to his [Willem's] Women than are his own less painterly and more linear series."[xxxiv] Without Elaine, Willem may never have succeeded in pursuing his most famous paintings to date. Figure 1 Figure 2 i Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 23.
ii Justin Wolf, “Elaine de Kooning,” The Art Study Foundation, last modified 2012, accessed April 30, 2012, http://www.theartstory.org/artist-de-kooning-elaine.htm. iii Ibid. iv Ibid. v Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 23. vi Jane K. Bledsoe, introduction to E de K: Elaine de Kooning, ed. Jane K. Bledsoe et al. (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 13. vii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 23. viii Ibid. ix Lee Hall, Elaine and Bill: Portrait of a Marriage, (New York: Harper Collins, 1993), 29. x Ibid. 30. xi Ibid. 31 xii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994),24 xiii Ibid.28. xiv Jane K. Bledsoe, introduction to E de K: Elaine de Kooning, ed. Jane K. Bledsoe et al. (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 18. xv Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994),27. xvii Ann Gibson, “Lee Krasner and Women’s Innovations in American Abstract Painting,” Art Journal 28 no.2 (2007): 12, accessed April 17, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20358126. xvii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 28. xviii Jane K. Bledsoe, introduction to E de K: Elaine de Kooning, ed. Jane K. Bledsoe et al. (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 19. xix Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 25. xx Ibid. xxi Marjorie Luyckx, preface to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 11. xxii Rose Slivka, introduction essay to Elaine de Kooning: The Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, by Elaine de Kooning, (New York: George Braziller, 1994), 25. xxiiI Ibid. 24. xxiv Ibid. xxv Jane K. Bledsoe, introduction to E de K: Elaine de Kooning, ed. Jane K. Bledsoe et al. (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 13. xxvi Ibid. 13-14 xxvii Ellen G. Landau, “Aspects of the Fifties,” Art Journal 40 no. 2 (1980): 388, accessed April 17, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/776606. xxviii Lawrence Campbell, “The Portraits,” in E de K: Elaine de Kooning, Ed. by Jane K. Bledsoe, et al., (Athens: Georgia Museum of Art, 1992), 34. xxix Celia S. Stahr, "Elaine de Kooning, Portraiture and the Politics of Sexuality," Genders 38 (2003), accessed April 29, 2012, http://www.genders.org/g38/g38_stahr.html. xxx Some sources have cited that it was painted in 1954, but most cited 1949, the year that was favored in my research. xxxi Celia S. Stahr, "Elaine de Kooning, Portraiture and the Politics of Sexuality," Genders 38 (2003), accessed April 29, 2012, http://www.genders.org/g38/g38_stahr.html. xxxvii Ibid. xxxviii Ibid. xxxiv Ann Gibson, “Lee Krasner and Women’s Innovations in American Abstract Painting,” Art Journal 28 no.2 (2007): 13, accessed April 17, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20358126. Over the next couple months we will be closely examining the lives and works of various women throughout history. Today's post will conclude our discussion on one of the first: Hildegard von Bingen. Having looked at her early life and religious works, we will complete our examination of her contributions to the church and the full manifestation of her theology as seen through her various works. Following the completion of Scivias and the death of her beloved secretary, Richardis, Hildegard began the most prolific and ambitious period in her life. In 1154, King Frederick I Barbarossa, the Holy Roman emperor of Germany, invited Hildegard to meet him at Ingelheim. Following the successful meeting, he granted unlimited royal protection to the cloister at Rupertsburg.[i] Even during the great Schism of 1159,[ii] when Hildegard chastised the emperor for electing an anti-pope, the two maintained a mutually beneficial relationship.[iii] Several years later, in 1165, Hildegard established a daughter monastery at Eibingen [iv] (Figure1). Following yet another debilitating illness and near death, Hildegard received a revelation. God had asked her to travel and preach, to spread his word throughout the continent. Such an undertaking by a woman was unprecedented. In 1158, Hildegard began the first of four long preaching journeys that took her as far south as Switzerland and as far east as Paris.[v] She traveled by horseback, foot and ship[vi] speaking to the entirety of the Christian community: clergy, laity, monks, nuns and ecclesiastical officials.[vii] Plagued throughout this time by bodily weakness and further illness, Hildegard's preaching journeys were spread out over the course of thirteen years.[viii] Despite traveling across the continent, Hildegard continued to evolve her feminine theology and expand her artistic abilities. Hildegard's gifts knew no bounds. "God's plentitude expressed itself in her seemingly endless variety of projects and writings"[ix] as she pursued illustration, music, poetry, medicine and other secular writings. She wrote two biographies of saints, both the patron saints of her cloisters: St. Rupert and St. Disibode.[x] In addition to her three theological writings (Scivias, De Operatione Dei and Liber Vitae Meritorum), Hildegard published six secular writings on medicine, nature and healing. Included among these books was Liber Simplicis Medicinae, which offers pharmaceutical advice on the healing properties of plants and elements from nature. The other was entitled Liber Composital Medicinae, a book that discusses symptoms, causes and cures of numerous physical ailments.[xi] Aside from her place as a historical visionary and author, over seventy-six songs were written by this Renaissance woman. Hildegard is the only composer in the history of Western music who was also a respected Theologian and has more monophonic chants attributed to her name than any other composer in the medieval time period.[xii] Although her music was primarily written for the offices and masses of her convent,[xiii] her music is still widely recognized and played today in the twenty-first century. Hildegard's "unrhymed, unmetrical songs, wholly unpredictable…follow the rhythms of thought alone. Their content belongs to the twelfth-century, but their form anticipates the twentieth."[xiv] Her most ambitious musical undertaking was a morality play, Ordo Virtutum (Play of Virtues), which has no medieval parallel [xv] as the first and only morality play set to music.[xvi] Hildegard concluded this prolific artistic career with her last theological and artistic undertaking, a book of visions and images called De Operatione Dei. De Operatione Dei (Book of Divine Works), was completed in 1173 and is regarded as Hildegard’s finest creation.[xvii] The book is also known as Liber Divinorum Operum. Her visions and accompanying illustrations within the text demonstrate "the consistency of Hildegard's thought in creating a female divinity."[xviii] Caritas is one Hildegard's most inspired and progressive theophanic images. Standing in the center of the illustration is a commanding female representation of divine love, Caritas (Figure 2). She stands holding the divine Lamb of God as a "male godhead erupts"[xix] from the top of her being (Figure 3). Lying underneath the feet of Caritas, crushed and vanquished is the personification of evil. To the bottom right of the image is an attached illustration of Hildegard herself, eyes lifted to heaven and seated with Volmar transcribing the revelation as it appears before her (Figure 4). Initially, the image appears as a rather traditional depiction of the Holy Trinity: God the Father with Christ the slain Lamb. Yet, the anthropomorphic rendering of the Holy Spirit as a female of divine love[xx] is a theology unique to Hildegard. Furthermore, the female figure is the most prominent in the manuscript. God the father exists not of His own accord, but sprouts from the head of the female Holy Spirit. "The generation of God the Father from the Holy Spirit's head explicitly implies that male’s dignity derives from female intellect."[xxi] In Caritas, Hildegard created a theophany dependent upon a feminine ideology. This theological view directly challenged the centuries-old perception of a male centered faith and creation story. If God arose from the wisdom of a female Holy Spirit, then woman, not just man, was created in the true image of God. Neither superior, but both equal before the eyes of God. With the completion of her final book and the preaching tours coming to an end, Hildegard remained at her cloister until her final days. Upon the publication of De Operatione Dei, in 1173, Hildegard's beloved secretary Volmar passed away. A new monk, Gottfried, was Volmar's replacement until his death in 1176.[xxii] During his short time as Hildegard's secretary, Gottfried composed Vita, the first biography of Hildegard of Bingen along with another monk, Theodoric.[xxiii] Hildegard's final secretary, a highly educated monk named Wibert, edited her works more than she desired, thus creating a high level of friction up until her death on September 17, 1179[xxiv]. Despite the subsequent Gregorian reforms which limited the active roles of women within the church,[xxv] Hildegard was quickly venerated as a saint. The canonization process began in 1233, set forth by Pope Gregory IX. Sadly, her beatification was never concluded. There have been three attempts to canonize Hildegard of Bingen as a saint, but due to the lack of evidence in recording her miracles, it is unlikely she will ever be declared an official saint.[xxvi] Nonetheless, her works have not been overlooked by the Church, or its leaders. During his reign, Pope John Paul II called Hildegard an "outstanding saint …[who was] a light to her people and her time [who] shines out more brightly today."[xxvii] Hildegard provided a light for God and the arts that will never be diminished. Hildegard of Bingen was not just one of the greatest women of her time, but one of the greatest theologians and artists of the Middle Ages. "Her movement beyond just the textual into the text and image makes it hard to find peers with whom to compare her."[xxviii] Meanwhile, her musical compositions were centuries ahead of their time and her morality play has yet to find an equal nearly a thousand years later. In addition, Hildegard was one of the first women to openly challenge the patriarchal domination of the Church and infuse it with a feminine theology all her own. Hildegard must not be forgotten or overlooked, nor can she only be discussed in the context of female artists; a trap many of today’s art historians and scholars have fallen into. Rather, she must be compared with the greatest men of her time. When this comparison is made in greater depth, the world will finally see that Hildegard of Bingen has no comparison, even among men. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 [i] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 107.
[ii] Following the death of Pope Adrian IV, the Papal election of 1159 resulted in the election of Pope Alexander III. Several Cardinals, however, refused to recognize him and elected Ottaviano de Monticelli, who took the name Victor IV. The Church sought out King Frederick I Barbarossa’s support, then Holy Roman emperor of Germany. He did not side with the Church majority, but rather supported Victor IV. [iii] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 13. [iv] McGuire, "Monastic Artists and Educators of the Middle Ages," 4. [v] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [vi] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 25. [vii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [viii] Gottfried and Theodoric, The Life of Holy Hildegard, 25. [ix] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 26. [x] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 6. [xi] Ibid. [xii] Fassler, "Music for the Love Feast: Hildegard of Bingen and the Song of Songs," 355. [xiii] Wilson and Margolis, Women in the Middle Ages, 701. [xiv] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 25. [xv] Wilson and Margolis, Women in the Middle Ages, 701. [xvi] Fassler, "Music for the Love Feast: Hildegard of Bingen and the Song of Songs," 356. [xvii] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 17. [xviii] Ibid. [xix] Ibid. [xx] Ibid. [xxi] Ibid. [xxii] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 14. [xxiii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 26. [xxiv] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [xxv] Storey, "Theophany of the Feminine: Hildegard of Bingen, Elisabeth of Schonau and Herrad of Landsberg," 19. [xxvi] Newman, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine, 15. [xxvii] Fox, Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen, 8. [xxviii] Dickens, "Sybil of the Rhine: Hildegard of Bingen," 30. |
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