*This is the fourth installment of a five-part series on the evolution of large-scale French Painting as seen in the premiere wings of the Louvre in Paris.**
As a flagship painting of the Romanticism movement, The Raft of the Medusa by Theodore Gericault was actually one of the first to usher in the new style at the beginning of the nineteenth-century. Gericault was primarily self-taught as he only received a few years of academic artistic training. He traveled throughout Europe spending most of his time in Rome, like Ingres and David. Yet, Gericault favored the drama and movement within Baroque and Mannerism rather than looking to the classical ideals of the Renaissance and ancient Rome. The Raft of the Medusa illustrates how Gericault utilized these movements to improve upon the burgeoning Romanticist tendencies. The painting also highlights the schism that was starting to form within the Parisian salons as artists began to venture away from the dominant Academic style of David and Ingres. Romanticists felt that the Neo-classical emphasis on line, balance and order left paintings rather static and stiff. They favored color over line as their means of evoking the necessary emotions within the dramatic scenes. In addition, Romanticism artists like Gericault preferred contemporary stories from the headlines that were removed from mythology and the ancient past or the kings, queens and imperial rulers of their day. Painting needed to be like The Raft of the Medusa: current, dramatic and highly expressive. The Raft of the Medusa cannot be understood fully without knowing the story behind the image. Gericault took the dramatic story of the Medusa straight from the French headlines. In 1816, the Medusa set sail alongside three other ships to the African coast of Senegal. The boat out sailed the others and while staying dangerously close to the coast, it ran aground. Eventually all passengers had to abandon ship. The wealthy were dispersed into the lifeboats while a large group of nearly one-hundred and fifty less fortunate individuals was forced to create a make-shift raft. Either accidently or on purpose, the raft was cut loose from one of the lifeboats and was abandoned at sea for nearly two weeks. Eventually, the people were rescued, but only fifteen survived. Shortly after, stories of murder, cannibalism, deathly storms and insanity arose. The story was perfectly suited for Gericault’s Romanticist ideals. Gericault directly challenged the academies by placing a modern subject on such a large-scale. Typically, large-scale painting was reserved for historical painting like the Oath of the Horatii or to commemorate historical events such as The Coronation of Napoleon. Even Ingres scaled down his image of a concubine in La Grande Odalisque in order for his work to be deemed more acceptable. Gericault, however, chose a story from his day filled with scandal and intrigue. As later Romanticism artists continued to believe, Gericault felt modern subjects were just as worthy of being placed on the grand-scale as he showed with The Raft of the Medusa. The artist continued to break away from the academic style and showed his alignment with Romanticism through his dramatic use of color, composition and modeling. In stark contrast to the Neo-classical and academic paintings of David or Ingres, Gericault’s Raft of the Medusa is all about movement and drama. Rather than arranging them stiffly as David did in Horatii, Gericault captures the movement necessary to evoke the desperation experienced by those on the raft through a less orderly composition. Figures are arranged along a sharp diagonal of despair to hope. The lower left and other parts of the foreground are filled with people flung about dead, dying or decaying. Figures in the top right, however, frantically wave to a ship along the horizon, the Argus— the ship that will eventually be their salvation. To further the contrast between hope and desperation, Gericault utilizes a less extreme form of Caravaggio’s tennebrism. Light is not evenly filtered as seen previously, but now it is starkly contrasted to evoke a particular emotion from the viewer. Although every figure is perfectly modeled and formed, their muscle structure is highly idealized in order to further capture the movement within the painting. Gericault studied from real models and cadavers, but also recalls Michelangelo’s Mannerist ignudi by adding muscles to emphasize movement through the composition. Little criticism can be drawn from the Academics, however, when Ingres also took artistic liberties with the human form. Although Gericault’s Raft of the Medusa marks the beginning of Romanticism, he still utilizes the sharp brushstroke of the academics. As the movement develops and progresses, ultimately, this will diminish over a looser, more painterly line that further emphasizes the drama necessary for a Romanticism painting.
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*This is the third installment of a five-part series on the evolution of large-scale French Painting and a personal favorite of the author*
Although Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres’ La Grande Odalisque continues to mark the shift in style and subject for French large-scale painting, it is still emblematic of the nineteenth century Academic style. Ingres was a student of David’s; they soon parted ways, however, due to artistic differences--differences that would become emblematic of Ingres' style. Nonetheless their academic and professional backgrounds are strikingly similar. Ingres trained in the Academic style that was now rooted in the Neo-Classicism David introduced in his Oath of the Horatii. In 1801, Ingres also won the coveted Prix de Rome, but did not travel to Italy until 1807. During this time he, too, gained commissions from the emperor, Napoleon, with the aid of his teacher, David. Staying true to the academic style set forth by David, Ingres painted large-scale images of mythology or the grand past with several grandiose images of Napoleon himself. It was not until Ingres finally set forth on his travels to Rome, however, that he would finally paint La Grande Odalisque. Ingres’ La Grande Odalisque is quite unique in its focus on precise draftsmanship mixed with figural distortion. Like David, Ingres favors line over color. The woman’s figure is beautifully rendered through use of chiaroscuro, her golden skin highly realistic. Every textile is expertly painted to accurately capture its own unique texture. Ingres still utilizes color to emphasize the odalisque’s form and sensuality, but his artistic focus does not lie there. What is so unusual, however, is that despite the close attention to form, line, and texture, Ingres paints a female whose figure is not one of nature. In fact, it appears as though she has just a few too many vertebrae. This ultimately becomes a trademark of Ingres’ female nudes. David painted figures exactly as they were, to illustrate his true ability to capture the human form accurately. Although Ingres’ stylistic idiosyncrasy steers him away from being a perfect prototype of the academic style, he was still deemed its champion in the beginning of the nineteenth-century to combat the changes that were starting to arise with the advent of Romanticism. The painterly evolution continued as Odalisque introduced a thoroughly modern and exotic subject matter. As Napoleon began his campaign to Egypt in 1798, the fascination with the Near East began. Orientalism was introduced and paintings were slowly becoming more exotic to reflect this newfound interest. Paintings became increasingly erotic, sensual and filled with women from harems. Ingres, too, was fascinated with this new subject matter and made it the focus of Odalisque. The woman is a concubine within a harem, as the term odalisque implies. There is nothing grand or mythological about Odalisque. Nonetheless, with a powerful painter and Prix de Rome winner such as Ingres now painting Orientalized figures, it helped usher in a full Orientalist movement within the Academic style that ultimately influenced future artists such as Jean-Léon Gerôme. Although Ingres appears to be breaking from tradition in several ways with Odalisque, there were several aspects about his painting that allowed viewers to more readily accept these changes. Academics typically painted royal portraits, mythological scenes or dramatic images from the ancient past; Ingres did not. Thus, part of what made the painting acceptable was its size. For although Odalisque is large, roughly three-feet by five-feet, it is not painted on the same grand scale as the Horatii or Coronation. Furthermore, while there appears to be a sharp break in subject matter, Ingres was clearly influenced by his studies in Italy. What helped ease in Odalisque to the general public was its clear reference to the Venetian Renaissance master, Titian, and his Venus of Urbino. The subject may not be grand or mythological, but it is directly influenced by an earlier attempt to rekindle the Classical spirit of Rome by Titian. The same is true for his unusual elongation of the female form. Ingres was criticized for this feature, but once again it was eventually tolerated because of Michelangelo. Having studied in Rome and the Sistine Chapel, Ingres understood the artistic liberties one could take with the human form while still creating a realistic, but exaggerated figure. He drew upon this in Odalisque. One could criticize him, but not his inspiration. Thus, La Grande Odalisque was met with less critical scorn and eventually accepted. **This is the second posting in a five-part series on the evolution of large-scale French Painting**
Following the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror, Jacques Louis David aligned himself with Europe's most powerful force: Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804, Napoleon commissioned David to paint his Coronation at Notre-Dame in Paris, France. The result was the aptly named Coronation of Napoleon, one of the largest paintings in history that also delivers an astute political message. David attended the nearly five-hour ceremony at the cathedral and sketched most of the images during this time. Nonetheless, many sketches were later changed and figures who were noticeably absent, such as Napoleon's mother, were inserted within the crowd. Also within the Louvre, is one of these very telling preliminary sketches. The sketch depicts the Pope--who begrudgingly came from Rome to Paris to attend the event--sitting indifferently as an assertive Napoleon crowns himself with his back cast towards the Church leader. As David illustrated in the Oath of the Horatii, he fully understood the power of a political message within painting and how to clearly illustrate that desired message to the public. Ultimately, the implication delivered by the sketch would be deleterious to Napoleon—a man who was already gaining an infamous reputation worldwide. Despite the changes, Coronation still maintains Napoleon's assertion of power over the Pope. Symbolically, his back is still turned towards him and Napoleon stands above the Pope, looming as a larger and more powerful force within the painting. Both painter and emperor are declaring Napoleon’s ultimate power over the people of Europe. This declaration of supreme authority is continued in the crowing of Josephine. No longer is Napoleon crowing himself, as seen in the sketch, rather he is crowning his wife and empress. The switch in imagery serves to benefit Napoleon's image by appearing less prideful as he crowns his wife rather than himself, but still allows him to assert authority over the Pope for he is the one to crown Josephine, not the Supreme Pontiff. Although Coronation initially appears to be in sharp contrast to David's other Neo-Classical masterpieces, the painting still upholds his traditional aesthetic as seen previously in the Oath of the Horatii. David is a master of balance; in a painting that contains well over fifty different figures, his ability to maintain pictorial stability and order is of the utmost importance. The ceremony takes place in the Gothic cathedral of Notre Dame, yet David only paints the part of the church that best resembles the simplistic symmetry of Roman architecture. Once again, David utilizes this architecture in the background to frame his figural groupings, allowing for the eye to move gracefully about the canvas. In addition, these figures are grouped together by clothing, ensuring the scene does not become too chaotic for the viewer. Despite all the figures, David still draws the eyes to Napoleon with his contrasting bright white and deep red clothing and eventually to the kneeling Josephine. Although the painting does not depict a moment from the ancient past, Coronation is still historical. History is now within present day, but the subject is still the same. The grand past is no longer the adequate means of describing the present. This shift will continue in the works of later French artists as they begin to look towards the present rather than the past for their large-scale images. All figures, objects and textiles are rendered naturally and each face is a true portrait of its subject as David continues his emphasis on draftsmanship as well. Although the changes within David's work and Neo-classicism are subtle, his work in Coronation of Napoleon still embodies the ideals of the academic style during the Neo-classical era. Jacques Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784, 10.8' L x13.9'H , Oil on Canvas, Paris. This is the beginning of a five-part series that will explore the evolution of large-scale French painting as seen in the premiere wing of the Musée de Louvre. We will start with the birth of Neo-Classicism to the transition of stylistic tendencies that eventually resulted in the counter movement of Romanticism. Beginning with the origins of the Academic style will also provide a solid foundation of understanding the deep-seeded underlying prejudices towards quantifying "good" art as discussed in the previous post.
Jacques Louis David's Oath of the Horatii is one of the most important paintings in the history of art. Not only did it mark the shift towards an artistic style that was better suited towards the ideals that later shaped the French Revolution and Napoleon's Empire, but Oath of the Horatii also set the precedent for what was expected of "high-art" in the salons of the 18th and 19th centuries. "High-art" is typically defined by its subject and its size: the larger the painting and the more historical the subject matter, the greater its value. By taking on this subject matter in such grand fashion, David knew he would solidify himself among the world's most elite artists. David knew how to align himself with powerful patrons and this influenced his later works and roles within the shifting French governments following the Revolution in 1789. Initially, David painted in the Rococo style to match the ornate court tastes of Louis XVI. His cousin, Francois Boucher, was a successful Rococo painter and ensured David a place within the Royal Academy. As tastes began to change, David shifted his style and entered the Prix de Rome, the ultimate painting competition that allowed the winner to travel to Rome and study the great masterpieces of the Classical era. After failing to win three times, David finally won the prize in 1774. He travelled to Rome where he also familiarized himself with the recently discovered Pompeii. It was during this time that he painted the Oath of the Horatii, the quintessential example of large-scale history painting and the Neo-classical aesthetic. When David entered the Oath of the Horatii into the Salon of 1785, it was met with resounding success; as a result, it became the single most important piece of the Neo-classical era and defined the art of the Salons as well as the academies for the next hundred or more years. David's precise draftsmanship and naturalistic rendering of the human form became the measure of an artist's talent and ability. He later emphasized this in his academy, the École des Beaux-Arts. Figures are beautifully modeled and shaded through the use of chiaroscuro and oil allows him to capture their minute details such as hair, texture or the veins coursing through their body. The Oath of the Horatii is almost photographic in its quality. Historically, Roman tastes lean towards realism. In addition, they have also favored balance and symmetry; David brings this balance to his painting. Everything in Oath of the Horatii is orderly. Three arches frame the three different groups of figures while the primary shape--the triangle--continues to emphasize this balance in groups of threes. Sharp diagonals are off-set by intersecting verticals while bright pops of red appear in each group to direct the eye and create visual stability. Aesthetically, David focuses on stability, balance and draftsmanship. While these create a highly naturalistic image, they also have the negative effect of making the painting and its figures appear static. Eventually, this will become a major argument against the academic style. Nonetheless, his Neo-classical style as exemplified in Oath of the Horatii, set the standards for future artists over the next hundred years. While David's style reflected the glories of Rome and the Neo-Classical aesthetic, so did his subject matter. Staying true to Rome and the ideals of "high-art," David chose to depict a historical subject: the war between Rome and Alba. The story describes the war between the two countries; as the casualties mount, both countries decide that rather than an all-out war, they will have one family of three represent each country. Fighting until the death, the last family standing will be declared the victor. For Alba, the family selected was the Curiatii; for Rome, it was the Horatii. Drama unfolds as inter-marriage affects both sides. The women are stricken with grief as one is betrothed to a Curiatii and one of the brothers is married to a Curiatii sister. Despite the tragedy that will unfold, the men stand upright pledging their oath to their father who holds them to their duty. Ultimately, the story is focused on the need for citizens to uphold their duty, honor and obedience to their country. In such a politically volatile time for France, David is reminding its citizens that their loyalties must lie with the state, not to family. The painting was originally commissioned by Louis the XVI as a reminder to the French people of where their allegiances should resign. In a sad twist of fate, the work became emblematic of the revolutionary ideals the king was trying to deter. The Oath of the Horatii is highly moralistic in preaching about one's patriotic duty, a theme that becomes pervasive not only in David's paintings, but other's throughout the Neo-Classical era. Therefore, it is not surprising that future leaders, revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat and Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte would employ David in order to instill these political undertones into their later commissions. What I have in mind is that art may be bad, good or indifferent, but, whatever adjective is used, we must call it art, and bad art is still art in the same way that a bad emotion is still an emotion. - Marcel Duchamp We have heard the phrases uttered hundreds of times. Perhaps, you have even said one of them yourself: "Even I could paint that!" "My child could do a better job than this!" While few who make these claims boast any art historical education, most feel they do know what quantifies as art, and most notably, good art. The fallacy stems from the belief that successful art, high-art, is representational, pleasing to the eye, grand and beautiful; anything less, is simply deemed bad art, or sadly, fails to qualify as art at all. As highlighted in the above quote from Marcel Duchamp, famous Dada artist and the king of creating works deemed unworthy of the 'art' title: there is indeed bad art and good art. Nonetheless, it is still art. This brings about the reasoning for why this is the first post on The Artist's Job. First, so that you will begin to recognize art as art despite your preconceptions. Second, and most importantly, that although you may not find an artwork visually pleasing, you can appreciate why it is deemed of worth. Ultimately, artwork is deemed significant if it embodies the beliefs and ideologies of the artist. The worth of art does not lie in its ability to render the world around us to near photographic quality. Yes, art is about color and form and line, but most importantly, art is an idea made tangible. It is the execution of that ideology through the means of painting, sculpting, architecture etc., that renders a work of art successful. Sometimes the idea a work of art comes to represent, however, is far more complex than the work of art itself. One such instance is Kazimir Malevich's Suprematist painting, The Black Square from 1913. "Malevich didn’t intend for the Black Square to be a representation of a real thing, but a sign of a dawn of new age" (Holtham & Moran, 2014). Upon first glance a black square does not appear revolutionary until one understands the visual history of the Eastern Orthodox Church. For centuries, Russia's churches maintained the same interior space, one filled nearly from floor to ceiling with religious icons. Malevich was making a bold statement to the Russian ways of old when declaring that a black square, not a saint or Christ figure, was the icon of the new modern Russia. Malevich painted a black square not from an inability to render the human form, but to destroy it.
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